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History's Hinge - 'Ain Jalut

[Bart]

Privateers and Mariners in the Revolutionary War

The 13 Colonies, having declared their Independence, had only 31 ships comprising the Continental Navy. To add to this, they issued Letters of Marque to privately owned, armed merchant ships and Commissions for privateers, which were outfitted as warships to prey on enemy merchant ships. Merchant seamen who manned these ships contributed to the very birth and founding of our Republic.

Comparison of Navy vs. Privateers in Revolutionary War

                                                        Continental Navy                       Privateers
Total ships ---------------------------          64                                         1,697
Total guns on ships -----------------     1,246                                       14,872
Enemy ships captured -------------         196                                        2,283
Ships captured by enemy ---------              ?                                         1,323

  Because of British policy regarding import of gunpowder, the colonists did not have enough to repel the third British charge at Bunker Hill. A survey by George Washington at the time showed army stockpiles were sufficient for 9 rounds per man. By 1777, the privateers and merchantmen brought in over 2 million pounds of gunpowder and saltpeter. A typical New England privateer carried two or three African-Americans who had long found employment in the fishing industry. The General Putnam from New London, Connecticut, had 4 blacks on board; the Aurora had 3. In Salem, Massachusetts, Titus, a slave owned by Mrs. John Cabot, ran a successful business recruiting blacks as privateers.

Privateer John Manley captured the Nancy, supplying the American army with 2,000 muskets, 31 tons of musket shot, 7,000 round-shot for cannon, and other ammunition. Captain Jonathan Haraden from Salem, Massachusetts, who captured 1,000 British cannon, was considered one of the best sea-fighters, successfully taking on three armed British ships at the same time. Privateers captured countless British reinforcements and over 10,000 seamen, keeping them out of the British Navy.

      In 1777 George Washington's armies totaled about 11,000 men. At the same time there were 11,000 privateers at sea intercepting British shipping in the Atlantic, Caribbean, and even between Ireland and England.

Together, the Continental Navy and privateers captured 16,000 British prisoners, a substantial contribution in comparison with the 15,000 prisoners taken by the entire Continental Army before the surrender at Yorktown. The crew of the privateers were well paid for their hazardous work, earning as much as $1,000 for one voyage, while average pay at the time was $9 per month.

Two unidentified American privateers battle two British ships

Joshua Barney

Joshua Barney was captured by the British while serving in the Continental Navy. He and his shipmates were kept on board in 3 foot high boxes for 53 days with minimal food and water. Upon arrival in England, he was imprisoned, but escaped with the help of a friendly guard. He returned to the Colonies to captain the privateer Hyder Ally, where he gained fame by tricking the British General Monk. As the two ships drew near, he shouted to the General Monk "Hard-a-port your helm," but had instructed his helmsman to do the opposite. The ships collided as planned, and Hyder Ally lashed her prize alongside.

James Forten, African-American Privateer

James Forten (1766-1843) was a 15 year-old powder boy on the privateer Royal Louis, commanded by Stephen Decatur, Sr. He was born free in Philadelphia and had already served as a drummer in the Continental Army.

The Royal Louis had a crew of 200, 20 of them African-Americans. During her first cruise as a privateer she captured a British Navy brig. On her second cruise she met the heavily armed British frigate Amphylon and two others, and was forced to surrender.

Young James Forten expected to be sold into slavery in the West Indies, as was British custom with their black prisoners of war. However, on board the Amphylon he was befriended by the captain's son, a boy his age, who persuaded his father to send Forten to England. Forten refused to be a traitor to his country, and the captain sent him to the prison-ship Jersey [see below], along with a letter asking he be treated kindly and exchanged if possible.

Forten spent 7 months on the Jersey sharing moldy bread and foul water with a thousand other privateers. Once, he had a chance to escape by hiding in the baggage of an officer being exchanged for a British prisoner, but he allowed a younger white boy to take the space. Forten helped carry the chest off the Jersey. He was set free in an exchange of prisoners and walked home from New York to Philadelphia, where he became a successful businessman and a founder of the Abolitionist movement.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Prison Ships
About 55,000 American seamen served aboard the privateers. When captured by the British Navy, they were given a choice: join the British Navy or prison. The conditions of captivity aboard the prison ships, mostly abandoned ships moored in New York harbor, were inhuman. The most infamous of these was the HMS Jersey. About 11,000 privateers died of disease and malnutrition, their bodies dumped onto the mud flats of Wallabout Bay, where Brooklyn Navy Yard now stands.

These Mariners lost their lives in the founding of our Nation and were a major factor in the winning of the Revolution.

Memorial to martyred mariners rededicated -- News article about the HMS Jersey and the Memorial.

American Prisoners of the Revolution: Names of 8000 Men
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Portrait of (probably) James Forten from Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution 1770-1800, National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution]

[Black Heroes of the American Revolution, by Burke Davis, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, San Diego: 1976.

The Black presence in the Era of the American Revolution 1770-1800, National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington: 1973

Black Men of the Sea, by Michael Cohn and Michael K.H. Platzer, Dodd, Mead & Company, New York: 1978

America's Maritime Heritage, Eloise Engle and Arnold S. Lott, Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1975

Pirates & Patriots of the Revolution: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Colonial Seamanship, C. Keith Wilbur, Old Saybrook, Connecticut: The Globe Pequot Press, 1973, 1984

Biography of Jeremiah O'Brien

http://www.usmm.org/revolution.html

[Solomon]

I prefer 'War of Independence', as I had too many relatives on the US side to like the term 'revolting Americans'.
 

Advertisement for the privateer ship Revenge, Nova Scotian Gazette 12 January 1779

Revenge Privateer.

Commanded by Capt. James Gandy, Who has been on several cruises, and met with great Success.

All Gentlemen Volunteers; Seamen, and able bodied Landsmen, who wish to acquire Riches and Honor, are invited to repair on board the Revenge Privateer ship of War, now laying in Halifax Harbour; mounting Thirty Carriage Guns, with Cohorns, swivels, &c bound on a Cruize to the Southward for four Months against the French, and all His Majesty's enemies, and then to return to this Harbour.

All volunteers will be received on board the said ship - or by Captain James Gandy, at his Rendezvouse at Mr. Proud's Tavern near the Market House, where they will meet with all due Encouragement, and the best Treatment; Proper Advance will be given.

Note that it is the French who are named specifically as the enemy.

[Bart]

Revolting Americans.  Not much has changed...

"where they will meet with all due Encouragement, and the best Treatment"

Undoubtedly the reference here is to that universal and ubiquitous naval lubricant known as grog, without which there would be little or no naval history.  I noticed another advertisement of the era which made prominent mention of it as an inducement.

- Bart

The Contemplator's Short History of Grog

From the earliest days of sail, men needed liquid during voyages. The most readily available liquids were water and beer. As there was no method of distillation or preservation, water was taken on board and stored in casks, replaced at the end of the voyage or at ports of call. Beer was also stored in casks and the ration. Water quickly developed algae and turned slimy, and beer turned sour, so the custom was to drink the beer before it soured and then turn to water. Stale water was sweetened to make it more palatable, and was often sweetened with beer or wine. The original ration of beer for seamen was a gallon a day, a significant amount to store over a long voyage. As the British Empire grew and longer voyages became more common, the problem of spoilage and shortages increased.

The origin of grog lies with Vice-Admiral William Penn, father of the founder of Pennsylvania. In 1655, during Penn's campaign for Cromwell in the Indies, Penn arrived in Barbados and captured Jamaica. Unfortunately Jamaica had few stores of beer or wine. Jamaica did, however, have rum. Penn, therefore, began the use of rum as a ration.

In the seventeenth century, an early form of rum was known as "rumbustion." In Elizabeth I's time, privateers and pirates traded in rum, and it was a liquor well-known to sailors. After 1655, as the Indies became an increasingly popular port, the use of rum increased. Although it became common, rum was not part of the "Regulations and Instructions Relating to His Majesty's Service at Sea" until 1731 at which time a half a pint of rum was made equal to the provision of a gallon of beer. In the early days this was specific only to ships in the West Indies, and rum was not diluted.(1)

Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon is known as the father of grog. Vernon was a noted seaman, and victorious at Porto Bello. He was also a constant critic of the Admiralty and a supporter of better conditions aboard ships. He derided pressment and advocated better treatment of sailors. His sailors gave him the name of "Old Grog" because of a waterproof boat cloak he wore. The boat cloak was made of grogam, a thick material which was a combination of silk, mohair and wool. Grogam was often stiffened with gum.

By Vernon's time straight rum was commonly issued to sailors aboard ship - and drunkenness and lack of discipline were common problems. On August 21, 1740, Vernon issued an order that rum would thereafter be mixed with water. A quart of water was mixed with a half-pint of rum on deck and in the presence of the Lieutenant of the Watch. Sailors were given two servings a day; one between 10 and 12 AM and the other between 4 and 6 PM. To make it more palatable it was suggested sugar and lime be added. In 1756 the mixture of water and rum became part of the regulations, and the call to "Up Spirits" sounded aboard Royal Navy ships for more than two centuries thereafter.

If the use of grog was common practice, the mixture was anything but standard. Vernon ordered a quarter of water to a half a pint of rum (four to one), others ordered three to one, and Admiral Keith later issued grog at five to one. The mixture seamen used for grog was named by compass points. Due North was pure rum and due West water alone. WNW would therefore be one third rum and two thirds water, NW half and half, etc. If a seaman had two "nor-westers," he'd had two glasses of half rum and half water.(2)

Rum acquired the nickname "Nelson's Blood" after Trafalgar (1805). Lord Nelson's body was placed in a barrel of rum for preservation. Legend has it that when the sailor's learned of this, they drank the rum. From that time on, grog was also known as "Nelson's Blood."

Dilution of rum into grog did not solve the problem of lack of discipline. In 1823 the Admiralty conducted an experiment cutting the daily rum ration in half, to one quarter pint (gill). In compensation they issued tea and cocoa, increased pay two shillings a month. In 1824 the experiment became permanent with the added bonus of an increased meat ration. However, as a gill at that time was equal to four double whiskies today, it was still a very strong mix.(3)

In 1850 the Admiralty's Grog Committee, which had been appointed to investigate problems associated with the ration, released a report which confirmed the relationship between drunkenness and discipline problems, and recommended the ration be eliminated altogether. As before, they recommended giving seamen compensation by way of of increased pay. However, Effective January 1, 1851, the Admiralty rather than ending the rum ration, merely decreased it. The rum ration became one half gill, or one eighth of a pint. Because of the decrease in amount, an effort was made to improve the quality. Rum brokers experimented with blending and blending formulas eventually became closely guarded secrets.(4)

Although the American Navy ended the rum ration on September 1, 1862, the ration continued in the Royal Navy. Toward the end of the nineteenth century temperance movements began to change the attitude toward drink. The days of grog slowly came to an end. On January 28, 1970 the "Great Rum Debate" took place in the House of Commons, and July 30, 1970 became "Black Tot Day," the last pipe of "Up Spirits" in the Royal Navy.(5)

The history of grog does not end there, however. An American purchased the rights to the formula for grog and royalties from the sale of grog are donated to the Royal Navy's Sailor's Fund.

http://www.contemplator.com/history/grog.html

[Solomon]

Some years ago I spent the Christmas season on the Finnish-Russian border and my (Swedish-language) hosts served me grog. Ever since I have wondered if the Brits picked up either grog or the name from Scandinavians (Norse, or Viking), or whether they adopted this from the Brits. This seems to settle the matter:

Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon is known as the father of grog. Vernon was a noted seaman, and victorious at Porto Bello. He was also a constant critic of the Admiralty and a supporter of better conditions aboard ships. He derided pressment and advocated better treatment of sailors. His sailors gave him the name of "Old Grog" because of a waterproof boat cloak he wore. The boat cloak was made of grogam, a thick material which was a combination of silk, mohair and wool. Grogam was often stiffened with gum.

But I remain unconvinced. Oral tradition has a way of reinventing history.

Solomon

[Bart]

Nova Scotia's Rebels-Pirates and Privateers

Kerri Leier

    During the course of history people have taken up trades for different reasons. Most of the time it?s based on economic times and financial need. There have been periods of time when women have taken up hunting, hangmen have been required, and mummifying has been used. The occupations of pirates and privateers rose out of economic and financial need. The first documented occurrence of piracy was 140 BC. The earliest definition of piracy was a Greek historian named Plutarch who described pirates as those who attack without legal authority, and not just ships but maritime cities as well.

    Privateering has been occurring for about that long. Privateers were pirates hired by the crown to attack enemy ships, whether they were military or merchant. They were very useful in times of war and when economical times in a country were hard. Pirates and Privateers had their own culture, language and codes. In fact, the nonsense song "Sing a Song of Sixpence" was used to recruit new pirates. (Isle of Tortuga)

    Pirate and Privateer weapons were similar. Both carried a cutlass (a short broad bladed knife), a musketoon (a short barreled musket, which was good for short ranged fighting), a flintlock pistol (light- weight and good for an attack on a neighboring ship) and a powder horn (a horn shaped container for gunpowder).

    Pirates were an important part of the everyday life. Without Privateers many battles would be lost and many countries would fall into the crack. Sir Francis Drake, hired by the British crown to explore, acted as a privateer around North America. He was involved with a number of attacks and captured many ships for the British Crown.

    Nova Scotia had one of the most prosperous privateering industries. Because of Nova Scotia?s maritime dependency it was up to privateers to keep the Nova Scotian waters clear of threats and to bring in any extra ships that were in places that they shouldn?t be. Canada owes a great deal to the privateers because of their involvement in the War of 1812. Nova Scotian privateers saved the day by closing the blockade of American ports. With larger vessels, the Royal Navy was more effective at high seas blockade. The numerous captures of American ships in Nova Scotian waters gave the Canadian forces a chance to beat the Americans back. Nova Scotian privateers played a significant role in demoralizing New England communities, undermining their support for the war and putting pressure on them to push for peace. Their involvement also inspired Stan Rogers to write a song about a mythical group "Barrett?s Privateers".

    Nova Scotians were also the victims of American privateers who were violent, often killing their victims. One particularly violent case occurred on November 17, 1775. Two American schooners arrived in Charlottetown where they kidnapped Governor Callbeck and looted his house, slitting the throat of his pregnant wife. (Choyce, 132) Unfortunately due to the attacks made on Nova Scotia during this time, food prices soared, fishing boats were stolen, trashed or taken for a ride. Contact between ports was eliminated and the lack of communication caused ports to close.

    As the harassment continued not even the smallest port was spared and the privateers became more brazen. They often left their victims naked for amusement or greed because they took everything they could get their hands on. Another famous privateer to grace the shores of Nova Scotia was Captain Amos Potter, a Yankee, and his crew. After capturing the ship "Resolution" Potter?s crew attempted to board an English vessel. The English heard of his scheme and upon his boarding the ship he was captured by the English. Potter?s crew went to avenge his capture by looting Annapolis, a small port which was forever being plundered and kidnapping a prominent member of the community. (Choyce132-133)

    Privateers often helped the war effort by attacking supply ships for the opposing side. In fact privateers brought in the funding for a new government house. Although they weren?t always dependable, they risked their lives for their country, although they often enjoyed their adventurous life. It was not unusual for privateers to be attacked by a ship in the Caribbean, see members of their crew go threw a press gang (another gang of privateers with knives who would all gang up and attack) and then sail home to capture an enemy ship. (1798 Cruise Report) (?)

    The life of a privateer was harsh but legal and most of the privateers followed the rules of their leader. They were cruel and acted like pirates at times but lacked the absolute "killer instinct" that pirates had. Pirates pillaged and burned, raped and plundered and didn?t have any loyalty to anybody. Pirates in Nova Scotia were not an unheard of occurrence. There were many rumored to have sail around our coastal shores. However, actual evidence of any kind is hard to come by.

    Everything about pirates and their way of life was done to strike fear into the hearts of their opponents. Although the Jolly Roger (skull and crossbones) was feared, nothing terrified victims more than the red flag, which signified no mercy. Although the stereotypes of pirates on land tell us they drank their treasure away, in actuality there was work to do when they reached the shore. Their boat had to be sea worthy and there was a lot of work to complete to keep it that way. Holes from canon fire and scrapes from bumping against another ship meant major repairs, and it was up to the pirates to complete them. Despite their lawbreaking ways, they had specific codes of conduct, which were highly respected and upheld. Beware the pirate code. (Isle of Tortugo)

    One of the pirates rumored to have lurked around our little province was Captain Hall. Captain Hall used, what is now called, Hall?s Harbor as his main port for his loot. Just above the harbor was the main camping ground of his Native American girlfriend. After one of Hall?s pillages, he obtained a box of presents for her. Unfortunately the British, tired of being plundered, had arrived before Hall and convinced the Natives that they were friends of Hall?s. As Hall approached the camping ground the British opened fired and the box was buried between Baxter?s Harbor and Hall?s Harbor.

    The most famous pirate to grace Nova Scotian soil is the one we?ll never know. The mystery of the Oak Island treasure has been going on for sometime, nobody knows who left it or what "it" is for that matter. Theories from "Captain Kidd" to "Incas" fleeing the Spanish have been brought up but none of it can be proven and it is all just speculation.

    There have been numerous attempts to reach the treasure, and a few even retrieved articles from the hole, but none have been successful at reaching the treasure. The Oak Island treasure has captured the imagination of millions, including Franklin Roosevelt and John Wayne but it is still an unsolved mystery. Our history of privateers and pirates in Nova Scotia is vast and intriguing. Our economic state during the time of pirates and privateers required these men to work as outlaws. It was important to our war effort for these men to steal the ships of our enemies, without them many wars would be lost. Acting out of financial need, these men risked their lives everyday for their crown and country. Although they thoroughly enjoyed their jobs, they were doing a great service to their country. Despite their rugged appearance, these men did their job vigorously, when they weren?t pillaging and burning things.

    Pirates capture the imagination of millions; they have been a focus of our attention for hundreds of years. Pirates have added an air of mystery to our province and a large bonus to our tourist industry. They have given us an outlet for our imagination and an excuse for searching for buried treasure. Pirates and Privateers are probably the most exciting part of our maritime history and definitely worth our recognition and respect.

Bibliography

Anderson,Rick and Holt,Dr.Richard "Quest for a Pirate"

www.ebs.hw.ac.uk/EDC/CAC/pirates/pirates.htm

This site has many useful tidbits that apply to all pirates. It includes lots of information on weapons, history and the lifestyle of a pirate. It has a beautiful picture on the main page and lots of great links.

Bruyneel, M. "Isle of Tortugo." huizen.nhkanaal.nl/~wastrel/

 This site, although not Canadian, has a vast resource about pirates. It is a great place to learn about the general pirate life and what piracy really is about. It includes letters of marquee as well as the Rules of Ransoming. It also has a number of pirating songs. Has good definitions and links.

Choyce,Lesley. Nova Scotia Shaped by the Sea-A Living History. Toronto,1996

This book has an entire section dedicated to piracy in Nova Scotia. It is well written and informative. It has great details on specific battles and specific pirates. It also shares with us the dirty laundry of the many governors who hired privateers.

Conlin,Dan "The Canadian Privateering Homepage"

www.chebucto.ns.ca/~jacktar/privateering.html

This site is well-organized and easy to search through. It has pictures, original journals, letters of marquee, history and much more. This is the only site devoted to Canadian Privateers. It is interesting and great for research. This site also contains a searchable database of all privateers/pirates so you can find out if you?re related to one.

Freeman,Joseph "1798 Cruise Report From the Privateering Ship Charles Mary

Wentworth" www.chebucto.ns.ca/~jacktar/report.htm

This is an actual report of a journey from the Charles Mary Wentworth. It is written by Commander Joseph Freeman and is very exciting and blunt. It is worth the time to read . It shows how dangerous the lives of these men were.

Fuller,William "Oak Island." http://members.tripod.com/~Zomb/OAKISLAN.HTM

This site is full of fascinating information about one of Nova Scotia?s great mysteries. It includes drawings from the actual time, the entire history and a great set of links. One of the links is to all the articles written previously about Oak Island.

 P.K.M, "Legends-Sir Francis William Drake." http://legends.dm.net/pirates/drake.html

This site has many interesting facts about one of the most popular pirates in the world. Sir Francis spent some time in Canada and this site explains his life. This site also has links to primary source documents written by Sir Francis Drake to a friend.

Wilczynski,Krzysztof " Pirates-Fact and Legend"

http://library.thinkquest.org/16438/pirate_fact.shtml

This site includes special information about famous pirates, ships and has great links. It describes the different types of piracy and if you return to the main page you can choose to look at pirate myth. This site also includes a vocabulary section, which would be good to use in a project.

http://www.angelfire.com/ns/hjch/leier.htm