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[Bart]

Astronomy and the Zapotecs

Nelly M. Robles Garc?a



   Building 1 was one of the first buildings to be constructed in the main square of Oani Ba?; it was erected in order to be able to observe the stars, the Sun and the Moon. It was built in the shape of the tip of an arrow, with the tip pointed towards the Constellation of Orion.

   Through observation, the wise men learned to identify the cycles of the Moon, the Sun and of Venus. This knowledge was indispensable for the exact control of time and for recording the celestial events like eclipses, comets and rains of stars that either augured well or badly.

   Knowing how to read the position of the stars allows us to predict changes in the seasons, when the days will be shorter or longer.

   The observatory was modeled on one built by our ancestors, who lived in the valley of Tlacolula 250 years prior to the existence of Monte Alb?n, in the village of Caballito Blanco (Little White Horse); we inherited from them most of the knowledge given them by the gods.

   There is not only a building in the main square in Monte Alb?n for observing the skies; we also use spaces where we can watch the movement of the Sun by looking at the shadows cast by the buildings.

   In the middle of the staircase on Building P and on top of Building H, two chambers were built from where we can observe the light cast by the sun into the room. On two occasions during the year, the Sun is in the highest part of the sky, the zenith, and when a ray of light comes through the special hole, we know exactly when we should make our offering to Cocijo, so that he will send us enough rain to wet the earth, and to Pitao Cozobi, the goddess of corn, so that we have a plentiful harvest. The surrounding mountains also serve as a reference to register the movement of the inhabitants of the skies.



   The priest, who is teaching the young, sits at the entrance to the observatory; he has all the necessary instruments: bowls filled with water that reflect the sky and allow us to observe it without having to fix our gaze on it, and lengths of cotton string from which stones are hung that are used to calculate the movement of each star or group of stars; another useful tool is a cross made of wood and bone that is used as a compass: you hold both its ends that can be opened or closed, thus changing the angle through which the observation is made. We have also devised a system whereby all the information is recorded in such a way that it is understood by all. This information is carved on stone, cloths animal skins, wood, bones or ceramics and we have invented symbols that imitate elements of nature; in reality, they represent dates on a calendar based on astronomical phenomena, such as when the Sun eats the Moon or when stars fall from the sky.

   Of all the young people being taught, only a few will be chosen to work in the observatory and to take charge of the information it stores.

   The wise men say that we should always observe the skies because that is how the gods communicate with us; they send us messages and announce future evils, and they teach us to live in harmony with our natural surroundings and with ourselves. That is why we always take a moment to look at the sky in the day and at night. That is how we learn to prophesy, to know our destiny for the next day or for our whole life, and to predict the events that will take place in our town, among our eternal race.

http://www.mexicodesconocido.com.mx/english/historia/prehispanica/detalle.cfm?idsec=1&idsub=2&idpag=590

[Bart]

Calendar and Writing in Monte Alban

Nelly M. Robles Garc?a



   These objects allowed the population to remember important events and traditions, and were a code for quantifying happenings during the year into months and days; that is, a calendar.

   At first, the calendar and the writing system were no more than a group of elemental symbols used to count and name things, as seen in steles 12 and 13 in Monte Alban, where the number 5 is shown as a human finger and the number 1 as a primitive dot. 25 centuries ago, numbers were associated with glyphs, faces and human figures and used to name people and places and to mark the dates of certain events. Thus, a person?s name was made up of a glyph and a number, depending on the day, month and year he was born in.

   This is the case of the oldest stone tablets in Monte Alban, known popularly as ?The Dancers?. The glyphs were people?s names. Don Alfonso Caso, the famous archeologist, who discovered Monte Alb?n, also discovered that there was a co-relation between the symbols shown on the steles and the events that took place on certain dates. That is why he set himself the task of identifying the glyphs as well as the personages. This would later bring him a series of associations that allowed him to approach and unravel the meaning of the messages etched on the tablets, steles and on the walls of the large buildings. They were also carved on the floors so that people could see them.

   In about 100 AD and onwards, being a huezaaquichi, a writer, a huecaayye, a painter or a tocaayayye, a sculptor, was considered to be a great intellectual feat that only few were capable of.

   Those who wrote, painted and sculpted had to have been given a rigorous education from the time of their birth; this education in writing and glyphs was usually carried out by the parents, who were also painters. A great deal of discipline was required but only the experienced, mature writers were allowed to record images that would be put on display in the grand Plaza of Monte Alb?n and on the most important buildings in the city.
The writers had young assistants who took charge of cleaning and polishing the stone so that the master could work on the designs. They were also responsible for providing the master with enough water, an essential factor in the carving and polishing of stone. They also had to look after his tools - hammers, picks, scrapers, chisels and polishing materials made out of stone from the river, and ensure that they were sharp, thus avoiding complaints from the writer. This was some responsibility.

   The calendar system was a convention of symbols associated with the solar cycle, which was shared with other Mesoamerican populations The Zapotecs also had a sacred calendar (piye) that comprised 260 days, which were combined with 13 numbers resulting in 260 different names; they also had a solar calendar of 365 days (yza), of 18 days and 20 months and 5 extra days; both calendars were derived from those that had been invented previously. As with the rest of the Mesoamerican calendars, the ritual and solar counts of 52 years also coincided with the Zapotec calendars. This was how centuries were completed and indicated the moment when the people?s and city?s life was totally renewed. This was the moment of the new Sun. The glyphs were the symbols that allowed for the recognition of fixed elements in the collective memory, such as the names of the towns, great soldiers and all important events. For example, names such as Yopa? meaning ? a place of rest?, Guichibaa (Tlacolula) ? the house of tombs? and Quetetoni (Yatareni) ? blood tortilla? are glyphs recognized by all Zapotecs in the valley of Oaxaca.

   The Mogote steles, made in about 600 to 800 BC, and the first steles in Monte Alb?n, erected in about 1500 BC are very difficult to interpret because they combine persons, dates and glyphs with important events. They include conquests, the delivery of tributes, coronations, initiation rites and other important events in the life of the Zapotecs.

   Some of these steles were integrated into the architecture that, in a way, helped to identify certain buildings with basic activities like agriculture, wars, religious rites, changes of political power, the advice given by counselors to the government and actions of self-sacrifice. All these writings were placed where everybody could see them ? on the fronts of buildings so that everybody could share the events, remember their origins and admire the power of the rulers in the wars and conquests of other populations.



   When a building was added to, as happened every 52 years, the steles or sculpted tablets were protected by the new construction; that is to say, the ritualistic meaning and history of these steles was jealously guarded. This indicates that the actual writing on the steles as well as the architecture itself were also objects of worship. At the beginning of a new cycle, by means of the celebration of the new fire, all of Mesoamerica left evidence of the most important facts and events of their lives on steles. This evidence would last forever.
The calendar was calculated based on the movements of the stars, the Sun and the Moon, because they governed all destinies and they were the most reliable. It was important, however, to have a well designed observation system that gave the priests the necessary precision with which to measure the yearly events and to be able to determine the orientation of the buildings.

   As the basic principles of the calendar were shared with other peoples, it was sometimes necessary to adjust the extra days in leap years, so that the calendar would not loose its original sequence during the changes of the seasons. With this in mind, a meeting was set up in Xochicalco attended by the priest-scientists to agree on the adjustments to the calendar. At this event a group of Zapotecs from Monte Alb?n , a group from Mayab and another from the High Plain were present.

   The discussions lasted several days and at the end of the meeting, a priest recorded the event on a stone on the central building. The calendars of the Mesoamerican populations had been made to coincide.
The concept of time was very important because time represented the cycles of life, agriculture days of misfortune and times of war. The human life cycle was a way to measure time and from this comes the importance of celebrating different moments in the development of a person?s life. Thus there was time to conceive, to be born, to learn, to reproduce and to die.

   The passing from one stage to another was, with good cause, a major event that should be celebrated jubilantly throughout the whole town. A birth was celebrated in the presence of the prophets who forecast the future of the newly born baby and they would choose the protector that would guard the baby from the evil.
Reaching the age of adolescence was also a reason to celebrate. A new young man was presented with his weapons and work implements at the ceremony and he would be accepted into social life and the army. On becoming an adult, the individual should marry in order to ensure that he have company, work and heirs but above all, that he be recognized as a member of society in good standing. This would end the mundane cycle and start the permanent cycle of spiritual life.

   Another cycle of equal importance was the agricultural cycle, because sustenance depended on it. In this case, offerings of blood and figures of women had to be made to the fields. The former fertilized the land, the latter symbolized fecundity.

   A great deal of work went into preparing and working the land. Everybody pitched in including the priests who would pray and burn incense. The sowing was done usually by the men; they would walk the fields with their planting stick, or coa, and their bag or sack full of seeds; they fasted before carrying out this task in order not to spread any evil influence on the land. The best moment in the agricultural cycle was undoubtedly the harvest. Everyone participated jubilantly, including the women and children The harvest brought about a renewal of life and everything started all over again.

Source: Pasajes de la Historia # 3 Monte Alb?n y los zapotecos

http://www.mexicodesconocido.com.mx/english/historia/prehispanica/detalle.cfm?idsec=1&idsub=2&idpag=591

[Bart]

Monte Alban, the Capital of Zapotec Culture

Jos? Bautista Hern?ndez



   A group of hills in the center of the Valle de Oaxaca housed one of the oldest cities on the American continent: Monte Alb?n, the capital of Zapotec culture and the most important political and economic center in the region during the pre-Hispanic era.

   In about 500 BC, construction began on the first public and religious buildings, together with other works such as patios, plazas, terraces, palaces and tombs. Among other things, this reflected the transition from a simple to a complex community, expressed in urban planning, the existence of clearly differentiated social classes and the division of labor.

   Monte Alban reached its apogee between 300 and 600 AD, when the city developed significantly in every respect. An example of this was its ceremonial architecture, comprising large, terraced bases, topped by temples built in honor of the gods of agriculture, fertility, fire and water. Its civil architecture was characterized by luxurious, palace-like constructions, the administrative headquarters of nobles and governors. Stone tombs for the eternal rest of their inhabitants were built under the patios of these buildings.

   The rest of the population was concentrated on the edges of public spaces. Dwellings consisted of simple constructions with stone bases and adobe walls. Within the city, various neighborhoods may have been built, according to the type of occupation of their inhabitants, such as potters, lapidaries, weavers and merchants. It has been estimated that during this period, the city covered an area of twenty square kilometers and that the population reached 40,000.

   Everything would seem to indicate that Monte Alb?n achieved its expansion through military conquest, the capture of rival governors and the exaction of tribute from subjected peoples. Among the products gathered as tax and others obtained through trade were foods such as maize, beans, squash, avocado, chili and cacao.
During periods of florescence, cultural expressions are reflected in a diversification of productive and craft activities. In Monte Alb?n, earthenware objects were made for everyday use, such as plates, pots, glasses and bowls, together with stone implements such as knives, spearheads, and obsidian and flint knives.
There was obviously a sharp difference between the domestic lives of the majority of the population and the minority groups of scholars, priests and healers who accumulated knowledge, interpreted the calendar, predicted celestial phenomena and healed the sick. They supervised the building of monuments, temples and stelae, organized festivities and acted as intermediaries between men and gods.



   In about 700 AD, the city began to go into eclipse. Large-scale works ceased at the same time that there was a significant reduction in the population. Many residential areas were abandoned while others were walled up to prevent the entry of marauding armies. The decline of the city may have been due to the exhaustion of natural resources or to an internal power struggle. Certain data suggest that the rulers were overthrown by the more disadvantaged social classes because of the obvious degree of inequality that had prevailed and the lack of opportunities for gaining access to consumer goods.

   The Zapotec city remained unoccupied for several cities, but in about 1200 AD, or perhaps even a century earlier, the Mixtec, who had come down from the mountains in the north, began to bury their dead in the tombs of Monte Alb?n. The Mixtec brought new traditions with them that are visible in the architectural styles. They were also skilled metallurgists, producing painted, codex-like books and introducing various raw materials and different techniques to make ceramics, and shell, alabaster and bone objects.

   The most obvious example of these cultural changes is reflected in a treasure, of obviously Mixtec manufacture, found in Tomb 7, which was discovered in 1932. However, the metropolis built on top of the mountain would never again recover its splendor, remaining as a mute witness to the greatness of its ancestors that had inhabited these lands.

Source: Tips Aerom?xico La ciudad de Oaxaca y sus alrededores Special Edition

http://www.mexicodesconocido.com.mx/english/historia/prehispanica/detalle.cfm?idsec=1&idsub=2&idpag=2445

[Bart]

Origins of the zapotec capital (Oaxaca)

Nelly M. Robles Garc?a



   Representatives from the great towns of Tomaltepec, El Tule, Etla and Xagu?a were going to a meeting in the village of Mogote; this meeting would be held in a special room made of stone and adobe. The Chief in Mogote was becoming impatient; he?d had to sweep the room, polish the floors with mud and the walls with fresh lime; he had ordered food like beans, tortillas and chocolate because, in a way, the meeting was like a party; the representatives from the other towns were coming to celebrate an important event that would change their lives.

   This meeting had been announced with snail shells, drums and chirim?a; the time had come to meet and receive them.

   They finally arrived bearing offerings and asking the gods permission to tread on foreign soil; one by one, they gave their simple offering to the lord of Mogote; mole casseroles, tortillas, cacao, cloths and copal so that they would be well received at the meeting.

   When all had arrived, the old men spoke: ?The time has come to make all our villages into one; we should not continue separated as we will be easily beaten by an enemy; we should find a central area and unite our strength and power there. The end of the millennium is nigh and it says in the books that a change has to be made to start the new era that is full of power and strength, and we have received no clear indication as to where we should unite the new settlement.?

   Another said: ? You, the young chiefs, may feel that there is no reason to hurry, but it is our destiny; if we unite, we will be strong and powerful, but this is not an imaginary power; we must work hard and great efforts have to be made to achieve this union. The gods have spoken, and you know they do not lie; we know everything in our villages; we know how to build, hunt and sow and we are also great traders, and we speak the same language. Why should we stay separated? The gods have said that if we want to be great, we must join forces.?
   
   One chief asked:? How should this be done, oh wise men? How will our people respect us? Who wants to be less in town common to all?

   The oldest man answered: ? In my lifetime, I?ve seen many towns and families like our own; they are all good, noble and great, but they don?t have a heart. That is what we should do; make the heart of our towns, the heart of our lives, of our children and of our gods. Our gods deserve their place in the heavens, together with the towns and the people, no matter the cost. That is what our hands, knowledge and strength are for. Let?s make our towns? heart bigger. That will bring us respect.

    ?The meeting approved the union between the villages and towns and there was one objective: build the capital of the Zapotec world.



   They then set about finding the best place and decided on the hills that made up the western end of the valley, in the Cerro del Tigre, where it was likely that other towns may attack.

   Everyone in the town was equal; they worked, sowed and lived together, except for the chief. He was in charge of visiting and giving thanks to the gods, and so the next most important people in the towns organized their best architects to plan the city that would become the capital of the Zapotec world.

   This event took place 2,500 years ago. All the towns in the valley, large and small, dedicated themselves to the construction of their capital. This ended up being a great city with enormous spaces for future building, as the Zapotecs knew that the race would exist for many centuries.

   The result of this alliance was Oani Ba? (Monte Alb?n) that was recognized by all as being the heart of the world.

   When the new rulers were named, they decided to launch a war to ensure that other towns would collaborate in the great project and provide their labor force, materials, food and, above all, water. This was brought in containers and pots from the Atoyac River, which accounted for the sight of people bringing water up the mountains.

   Along with the new city, a new way of ruling had been designed; the old town chiefs now served the new rulers, who were the most wise because they were priests and warriors. The destiny of the city and of the villages in the Oaxacaregion was now in their hands, as they were the power of the new Zapotec world.

Source: Pasajes de la Historia # 3 Monte Alb?n y los zapotecos

http://www.mexicodesconocido.com.mx/english/historia/prehispanica/detalle.cfm?idsec=1&idsub=2&idpag=587

[Bart]

The archeological discoveries in Monte Alban (Oaxaca)

Nelly M. Robles Garc?a



   It was 1931 and Mexico was living in important times. The revolution had now ended and the country was enjoying international prestige due to its advances in the arts and sciences. It was the era of the railways, radio, bowler hats and brave women demanding equal rights. It was during this time that Don Alfonso Caso lived. In 1928, Caso, a lawyer and archeologist, had gone to Oaxaca in search of answers to some of his questions. He wanted to know more about the origins of the Indians currently living in the region. He wanted to know more about the buildings that lay in the hills known as Monte Alb?n.

   And so he started a project that consisted basically of excavating the Main Plaza and its surrounding mounds; the planning was completed in 1931 and it was time to start the project. Caso formed a group of students and colleagues, and using some of his own funds and the donations he had received, he started excavating Monte Alb?n. He started on the central staircase of the Northern Platform, the biggest and highest in the area; from then on, he would go to where the work led him. On January 9, Don Juan Valenzuela, one of Caso?s assistants was called by the diggers to look at a piece of land where the plowing was deeper than elsewhere. As they dug deeper into a well that the workers had already cleaned, they realized that they were onto something big. That cold winter?s morning, they had discovered a treasure in one of the tombs.

   The tomb belonged to important people, as seen in the magnificent offerings also found; this discovery was called Number 7, as it was the 7th tomb found to date. At that time, it was the most spectacular find in Latin America.



   It had several noblemen?s skeletons and their rich garments and offerings totaling about 200, including necklaces, earrings, rings diademsand canes, most of which were made of precious materials, many of which came from distant regions. These included gold, silver, copper, obsidian, turquoise, rock crystal, coral bone and ceramic, all artistically worked with delicate techniques including filigree work and braids of gold string, something never seen before in Mesoamerica.

   Studies showed that the tomb had been used several times by the Zapotecs of Monte Alb?n, but the most valuable offering was that made by at least three Mixtec personages who had died in the Valley of Oaxaca in about 1200 AD.

   This discovery brought Caso a lot of prestige and opportunities to seek further funding and continue with the excavations. But there were also doubts about the authenticity of the find. It was so rich and beautiful that many considered it a fantasy.

   The discovery of the Grand Plaza was made in 18 seasons of field work with the help of his team of archeologists and anthropologists, including Ignacio Bernal, Jorge Acosta, Juan Valenzuela, Daniel Rub?n de la Borbolla, Eulalia Guzman, Ignacio Marquina and many others who were famous names in the archeological history of Oaxaca.

   Each building was explored by a group of workers from Xoxocotl?n, Arrazola, Mexicapam, Atzomba, Ixtlahuaca, Saan Juan Chapultepec and other towns, and was led by one of the team scientists. The objects they found were all carefully organized and taken to the laboratory, as they would help in setting the construction dates of the buildings.



   The detailed task of classifying, analyzing and interpreting the objects took many years; the book on the ceramics of Monte Alb?n was not published until 1967, and the study of Tomb 7 not until 30 years after its discovery. Those dates give an indication of the complexity of the task already completed to date and yet to be started. Caso?s efforts were definitely worthwhile. Thanks to him, we know that Monte Alb?n was built in 500 BC and went through at least five construction periods, now called Eras I, II, III, IV and V.

   After the excavating, the next task was to reconstruct the buildings. This was painstakingly carried out by Caso, Don Jorge Acosta and a large group of workers who recreated temple walls, palaces and tombs to give them a look that still remains today.

   Drawings were made of the whole city in order to better understand it. These included topographicalmaps and detailed drawings of each building. They also took a lot of care in drawing the substructures; that is, the buildings from previous eras found under the buildings we now see.

   Caso?s team also had to create a mini infrastructure so that they could survive week after week in the excavated earth, the archeological materials and the burial grounds. They built an access road that still survives today, as well as some little huts where they camped. They had to improvise their water supply and stockpile food provisions. It was, without a doubt, the most romantic period in Mexican archeology.

Source: Pasajes de la Historia # 3 Monte Alb?n y los zapotecos

http://www.mexicodesconocido.com.mx/english/historia/prehispanica/detalle.cfm?idsec=1&idsub=2&idpag=586

[Bart]

The Gods and Oaxacan Worship

Nelly M. Robles Garc?a



   The great Lord and Ruler and his closest priests and warriors, along with the priests and priestesses in charge of organizing the ceremonies in honor of the gods, all met in a closed space in the temple of Agriculture on the northern side of the Great Plaza.

   They all sat around a large mat. The council of ancients sat behind the priests in a different line, as was right for their category of counselors who were of the highest level.

   The room had been ?perfumed? with copal and so the atmosphere was cloudy, and the faces of the people and the urns of the different gods that had been placed in the center of the mat could hardly be seen.
All present expressed their gratitude to Cocijo, who had provided a lot of rain for the harvest. This would ensure that the population be fed, and that they pay the tributes to Dani Ba?. These tributes had been imposed on them by the ruler so that the town would be able to survive. There was enough water in the Atoyac River to supply the city and the neighborhoods.

   They also gave their thanks to Yocio, the god of lightning, who with his power and light had driven the rain from the clouds. Above all, this god was shown as a portent of the rain that would fall on the land; therefore the priests could know where he was and at what stage of his constant journeys he would turn towards the sacred city and the fields of Dani Ba?.



   The goddess, Pitao Cozobi, the god of corn and the harvest, was the reason for a special ceremony. The priests took blood from their noses and ears and let it drip into an urn that represented the goddess, as they had to offer their vital fluids before and after the harvest. As the earth had been generous, thanks to Pitao Cozobi, they offered their own blood, as a complement to the many offerings this goddess received in similar ceremonies held in the farm workers? houses. Each god was revered with prayers, offerings and sacrifices. The offerings consisted of copal resin, grains of corn, and benign herbs that the priests placed around the image of the god; lastly, they would light beeswax candles, a product made in the south, and put them in clay candelabra put next to the urns. Rites like these were celebrated several times a year, and we know of many in the Zapotec region, like the worship of Pitao Pezelao, god of hell and the underworld, Pitao Xoo, the god of earthquakes that commanded a lot of respect; Xonaxi Quecuya, the god of death; the bat god, the god of darkness, night and the unknown, who was very feared. Another god is the Jaguar that guards the entrance to sacred caves and temples; his image was put on walls so that everyone would feel his presence and pay him respect.

   Other gods were half human, half divine, such as Se?ora (Mrs.) 1e Serpent that constantly accompanied the dead, the man-bird-serpent that looked over life, the god of old age that represented wisdom, experience and prudence. And so, the inhabitants of Dani Ba? enjoyed the company of their gods, to whom they made offerings and rites as a way to secure favors from them.

Source: Pasajes de la Historia # 3 Monte Alb?n y los zapotecos

http://www.mexicodesconocido.com.mx/english/historia/prehispanica/detalle.cfm?idsec=1&idsub=2&idpag=594